A. Loewry and C. Neuberg once said "It is an old experience that through her errors, Nature often grants us unexpected insight into her secrets which are otherwise closed domains." This poignant comment can be keenly integrated into the fact and theory of evolution. Biological evolution and the theory of evolution are two of the most confused issues regarding the broad subject of evolution. Myths and misconceptions are created by those who believe in evolution and by those who don't believe in evolution. Whether you choose to believe in either is up to you in the end. However, let's not be close-minded about the possibilities in life.

    Penguins are no different from other organisms. They have evolved as well. This section of the Penguin Page deals with the timely evolution of ancient beings into what are today known as "penguins." We'll discuss some basic theories of evolution and attempt to understand biological evolution. Once that is complete, we'll touch upon penguins that have come and gone. We'll explore other avian species that are related to penguins and compare and contrast those that are mistakenly linked to penguins. As always, your feedback and insight are graciously accepted. If you have something you would like to contribute to the penguin page -- a moderately to highly scientific commentary or political commentary -- please visit the pages devoted to deconstructing penguin myths. Please read the following definitions; they will be employed throughout the discussion.

Allele: Alternative forms of a gene. Possessing different alleles allows one to create random variation in offspring.

Biological Evolution: Dr. Futuyama, one of the most renowned evolutionary biologists claims that biological evolution is "change in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual. The ontogeny of an individual is not considered evolution; individual organisms do not evolve." Thus, one can postulate that biological evolution could be either small or large. Regardless, biological evolution is the process whereby individual organisms pass their alleles to subsequent generations. These alleles are either mutated, creating a change, or preferentially directed (mate selection, survival of the fittest, etc.). Biological evolution can be witnessed daily. Biological evolution can be proven (and has been).

Gene: A series of genetic code that is utilized by cellular systems to generate proteins or other nucleic acids. Traits seen in individuals (or mutations) may be created by one or multiple genes.

Mate Selection: The theories and observations used to explain how the different sexes of different species present themselves to the opposite sex and how they select members of the opposite sex for mating purposes. Some species base their selection on complex determinants, which appear to us as simple things like color, symmetry, song, etc.

Mutation: A permanent error in the genetic code (i.e., DNA). If a mutation is not lethal, the mutation can be inherited.

Ontogeny: The lifetime growth and development of an individual.

Theory of Evolution: The second component of evolution. The theory of evolution refers to the number of theories by which biological evolution occurs; these theories attempt to postulate when and why changes in populations occur. The theory of evolution does not state that human beings came from monkeys. The theory of evolution does not state that evolution is the movement of primitive lifeforms to higher beings. Theories of evolution might postulate why a trait appeared in a single celled organism or why certain penguin species have crests and others don't. Because it is a theory, this facet of evolution cannot be directly proven.

    We have already stated that evolution contains two facets: theory and fact. Unless you want to recall the specifics of evolution, just take home the notion that evolution basically refers to the process whereby change occurs throughout population histories. And when I speak about change, I mean genetic change. To state a simple issue that is often overlooked as evolution, evolution would not be considered if a penguin, while roaming through the shore, finds an alternate pathway that leads him to food. That ability cannot be passed on to its offspring. However, if a new chick is hatched and for some reason it has larger leg muscles than the other chicks, these leg muscles may enable it to walk faster towards food and get the lion's share of that food. This change in anatomy could be passed on to its offspring. That would be considered an adaptation that might allow the offspring of that very penguin to evolve.

    Let's get back to the first example in which I stated that a penguin finds an alternate pathway. Suppose this yellow-eyed penguin finds a shorter pathway to the common food. He gets their first. Suppose he mates and has chicks. Suppose these chicks follow their parents to the food via the short path. Suppose those chicks eventually grow, mate and have chicks that follow them via the short path to food. Furthermore, let's suppose the common food source is not very plentiful. Who will most likely get the food? The yellow-eyeds following the short path or the yellow-eyeds following the long path? Most likely the yellow-eyes following the short path will get most of the food, and the yellow-eyes following the long path may not get any. As a result, these "long path" yellow-eyes might not have enough energy or reserves to mate and rear chicks; however, the "short path" yellow-eyeds might have a lot of reserves and be able to produce more offspring. Pretty soon, there's more offspring of the "short path" yellow eyeds than there are of the "long path" yellow-eyeds. This represents a population shift in favor of the "short path" yellow eyeds. Consequently, there will me more of these on the shores. Eventually, they will dominate the scene. This is a form of evolution -- the mechanisms whereby one form of a species may dominate over another.

    The theory of evolution can be an interesting topic when one considers penguins, so let's talk about where penguins came from. Penguins are birds, and they obviously came from birds. But, when did they come from birds? Look at the following geological timeline. Knowing what you know about dinosaurs and birds, try to guess when birds came on to the "scene." And when you're finished, try to guess when penguins came on to the "scene." [Measured in terms of millions (M) of years from today -- 0.]

Darwin, Charles. On Evolution. Glick & Kohn, eds. 1996. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.: Indianapolis.

Krebs, J.R. & Davies, N.B. 1993. An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Krebs, J.R. & Davies, N.B. 1991. Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Young, David. 1992. The Discovery of Evolution. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

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